In the Field 
In the field, the process is much the same - you’re just doing everything by hand. The exact procedure will vary among GPS makes and models, but, generally, you're creating a landmark/waypoint by entering the coordinates yourself. (The key here is to double-and triple-check your work to ensure that the coordinates are being entered correctly.) 

Here, Figure 53 is our example. On a mule deer scout, you find fresh tracks in two small saddles and fresh beds on a timbered bench. You save each as a waypoint/landmark in your GPS, naming the locations of the tracks as "1" and "3" and the bench as "2."  

Next, using steps described earlier in “Introduction and Map” section of the essay, plot these coordinates onto your paper map. (Because you're using a paper map, you can now view the tracks and bedding location and put them into context: the deer are apparently using the saddles to pass over between Maverick Creek and Spruce Creek and bedding on the bench above Spruce Creek.) 

The process works equally well in reverse. If you have noted the two saddles and bench on your map and want to check them out, you can plot their coordinates (again, as described in the "Introduction and Map" section of the essay) and enter them into your GPS manually, taking care to assign them the same number as penciled in on your map. The coordinates for the waypoint/landmarks in Figure 53 are as follows: 

1 -  12 05 67 940
______48 40 520 

2 - 12 05 67 700
______48 40 250 

3 -  12 05 67 400
______48 40 300 

Figure 54 reflects a common situation: you've spotted distant game and need a strategy to plot its position and plan your approach.  

During a morning hunt you're on the trail glassing across Open Creek in the Teton Wilderness and spot elk grazing on the other side of the drainage in a small meadow. You figure on an evening hunt, banking that the elk will return to the meadow near sundown. First, you mark (save) your own position with your GPS, as shown and plot it on your paper map. (That coordinate, incidentally, is 12 05 83 060 E, 48 88 129 N.) Next, with your compass, take a bearing from your position to the meadow, which is 132 degrees magnetic, and pencil it in on the map, also as shown. (Having first added the 12 degrees east declination to obtain a grid bearing of 144 degrees; refer to the "Compass & Position Plotting" section of the essay.) 

Your grid bearing line of 144 degrees identifies the meadow, once again, as shown; you can now determine the meadow's coordinate - it's 12 05 83 704 E, 48 87 224 N - enter it into your GPS, and save it as a waypoint/landmark. (You'd also want to mark the identified meadow on your map.) 

Now, using your map and other resources, you can plan your approach to the meadow, be it that evening or any other time. (Without the resources of map, compass, and GPS, finding that meadow would be highly problematic, especially in darkness. In addition, GPS allows you to check your position as you move along, choosing your route as you go.) 

Once you've finished your hunt (successfully or not), use the baseline/handrail approach to navigate back to the trail, and from there to camp. 

Using UTM Grid / UTM Corner Scales - A Brief Aside 
As covered in the "Maps and Coordinate Systems" section of the essay, your position can readily be "eyeball-plotted" if you're using UTM-gridded topos generated by Terrain Navigator. As an option, though, a UTM grid / UTM corner scale can also used. There are many of these available, but I prefer either the MapTools “Pocket Size Corner Roamer,” as described in the "Compass and Position Plotting" section of the essay, or those built into the Brunton Combi compass. (In addition, there's always the old standby: the U.S. military issue corner scale and protractor.) 

Figure 55 illustrates use of the UTM grid / UTM corner scale (as applied here with the scales built into the Brunton Combi). All corner scales work the same way. Place the corner scale's corner on the landmark - in this case, Government Peak - and pivot the scale until it's precisely square with the UTM grid lines. You can then read your Easting and Northing along the grid square's west and south grid lines, respectively, as shown. (The UTM coordinate for Government Peak is 13 74 325 E, 46 43 850 N.) 

Note that the Brunton Combi scale is graduated in 100-meter increments in the 1:50,000 scale and 50-meter increments in the 1:25,000 scale. (The MapTools "Pocket Size Corner Roamer" is graduated in 20-meter increments on the 1:50,000 scale and actually breaks down into 10-meter increments on its 1:24,000 and 1:25,000 scales. That's probably more precision than is actually needed in most situations, but it's nice to know it's there if you want it.) 

It's vital that you use the correct scale. The Combi's scale options are 1:25,000, 1:50,000 (as applied in Figure 55), and 1:63,630. The "Pocket Size Corner Roamer" offers 1:24,000, 1:25,000, and 1:50,000. The scale of the corner scale must match the scale of your map.

Back, now, to GPS. 

Using "GoTos" 
All GPSs (those I have long experience with at any rate - Garmins, Magellans, and Bruntons) utilize the "GoTo" feature. This is your direction finding resource; press the GoTo button and you'll be asked to select a stored waypoint/landmark. Once you've picked one - camp, for instance, a downed deer or elk, or a spot you want to reach - your GPS will provide its precise distance and bearing; you can now turn the GPS off. 

Here’s where the skills you learned in “Compass and Direction Finding” kick in. With the compass set and aligned on the course your GPS has provided you, look ahead along the line extending from the direction-of-travel line on your compass to a specific landmark - a distinctively-shaped tree, rock, or rock outcropping, for instance - this is your steering mark. Put away our compass and walk to the steering mark you've selected. Once there, the process is repeated as many times as necessary until you reach your objective. Remember always to check your paper map often to plan your route and route options.  

Again, a couple of observations here. Naturally, you'll seldom be able to travel in an absolutely straight line the entire way; there will be times when you'll be compelled to depart from your straight-line heading/course, sometimes by quite a way. When this occurs, simply fire up your GPS, get a new bearing to camp (or whatever your objective is), and begin the process again. 

Second observation. It's best to use steering marks that are between you and your objective; that way, if you have to depart from your base heading/course for a time, it doesn't matter, because you'll be picking it up again once you reach the mark. If, on the other hand, you use a steering mark that's beyond your objective - a distinctive peak or point on a ridgeline, for instance - you'll need to use your GPS to check your correct course/heading more often. 

As we've seen, the whole process is equally workable in darkness with the right compass. Covering the ground is a much slower process, of course; your steering marks, by necessity, are usually much closer and you're hiking by flashlight (used sparingly). On the other hand, moonlight can provide a surprising amount of navigation light, especially when there's snow on the ground. In any event, it's important to factor in a lot more hiking time to reach an objective and to be patient; simply take it one leg at a time, move deliberately and carefully, and accept the fact that it's going to take longer to get there.  

Practice Practice Practice 
It's impossible to overemphasize the importance of practice. With your maps, compass, and GPS - and the skills you've now acquired - get out and practice. Start by positioning yourself at distinctive landmarks clearly marked on the map - places where you know where you are - and plot your position on your map not only with your GPS, but with compass triangulation/resection, as well. This will build confidence; as you become more accomplished, move away from known landmarks and continue practicing  

Geocaching - Fun and Made-to-Order Practice 
As your confidence builds and your skill level increases, you can set up your own practice scenarios - the possibilities here are endless. But there's also an Internet-based outdoor activity that might be described as a family-oriented combination of hiking, treasure hunting, and practicing your back country navigation skills called Geocaching that's hard to beat. 

The official Geocaching website - www.geocaching.com - saw its startup in 2000. Go to the site, set up an account - all but a very short list of features are free - and begin browsing through a mountain of information. It works basically like this: 

- As of this writing, there are more than 180,000 caches hidden in over 215 countries worldwide - including all 50 states and every Canadian province - with their locations clearly identified by their coordinates in both UTM and Lat-Lon. In minutes you can access the caches in your area or whatever area you select. (There are, for instance, some 800 caches within 100 miles of Cheyenne, Wyoming, over 4,700 in the Seattle, Washington, area, 1700+ in the Denver, Colorado, and Austin, Texas, regions, 3700+ in Alberta and British Columbia, and some 3200 in Ontario.)  

- A cache is normally an Army ammo can, a Tupperware box , a jar, or other waterproof container filled with trinkets. The idea is to tap the chosen cache's coordinates into your GPS, then go find it. The tradition is to take a trinket, leave a trinket, and make a notation in the logbook you'll find in the cache. Once home, you access the Geocaching website and log your find; you can even upload photos and other graphics, if you so choose. Just as readily, you can start hiding our own caches: all the directions for doing so are on the website. 

Geocaching is not only excellent practice, it's a great way to introduce your kids (even teenagers!) to back country navigation and hone their skills, as well as your own. (My five-year-old daughter, Natasha, is a seasoned geoacher. She calls Geocaching "treasure hunting;" our deal is that she gets to pick the trinket from the caches we find - Dad gets to buy the trinkets we leave.)  

Back Country Navigation & Your Hunting Strategy 
It's about far more than navigating your way out of jam - as if that isn't important enough on its own. It's about incorporating back country navigation skills directly into your hunting strategy. 

Springs, timberline basins, meadows, timbered benches, saddles, small stands of trees, honey holes you know about or have had identified to you - for a hunter, the list of desirable spots goes on and on. Map work - before and during hunts and pre-season scouts - can make all the difference. Here's where you apply everything we've covered throughout the essay, find these spots, and navigate your way back to camp afterward.

A Few Closing Thoughts 
Much of what follows has already been covered, but a little final emphasis can't hurt. 

- Stay found. Have a good working idea where you are at all times.  

- Use map, compass, and GPS in an interwoven system, each backing up the other. 

- Practice, practice, practice. Can't hit this one too hard. 

- Develop a carry system. The Kifaru system makes this easy. The handwarmer pouch, possibles pouch (I prefer the large), and/or cell phone/GPS pouch are ideal. Your map, compass, and GPS need to be readily accessible, not buried in your pack. Try different combinations until you've found what suits your particular style. 

- Take your time and double-check your work. There's no reason not to. Haste can readily cause mistakes and some real headaches. 

- Incorporate back country navigation directly into your hunting strategy. 

- Teach your kids to navigate the back country. No matter what, where, or how you hunt, it's a universal skill that will make them better hunters and might just save their lives. Or yours. 

I am always available to answer questions and discuss issues on the Kifaru message boards. My email addresses are as follows: bcn@onewest.net and rcblust@yahoo.com.  

Dick Blust, Jr.
Rock Springs, Wyoming, USA 

WEBSITES OF INTEREST 

www.usgs.gov 
Official site of the United States Geological Survey 

http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca  
Official site of the Canadian Centre for Topographic Information. Up-to-date true-to-magnetic declination for anywhere in North America is available here; you must supply a Lat-Lon coordinate for the area or spot you're interested in. 

www.topozone.com 
Home of TopoZone, a very useful site that permits you to go to any USGS topographic map location in the United States. Also provides accurate, up-to-date declination information, including grid-to-magnetic declination. 

www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/3-25.26/index.html 
This address will take you to the U.S. Military's complete Field Manual 3-25.26, Map Reading and Land Navigation, online. (You may have to type in the entire address, but it's worth the effort.) Also at this site are dozens of other military manuals. 

www.maptech.com  
Home of MapTech Terrain Navigator. Available here is free, full-feature download demo version of Terrain Navigator, which will enable you to check it out firsthand. 

www.maptools.com 
The address above will take you to Map Tools, which offers a broad range of tools,templates, protractors and other map plotting gadgets (including the MapTools "Pocket Size Corner Roamer.") Also available are a number of free downloads. 

www.pyser-sgi.com 
Manufacturers of the Francis Barker M-73 and M-88 prismatic compasses. 

www.brunton.com 
Website for Brunton of Riverton, Wyoming. Brunton sells a broad range of compasses - including the Model 54LU Combi- GPSs, altimeters, and other equipment. 

www.cammenga.com 
Website for Cammenga, the manufacturers of the standard American Military Issue Model 27 prismatic compass. 

www.magellangps.com 
Website for Magellan, one of the major GPS manufacturers. 

www.garmin.com 
Website for Garmin, one of the major GPS manufacturers. 

www.geocaching.com 
The official geocaching website.

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